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| Letusan Toba Termuda | |
|---|---|
 Ilustrasi artistik tahap awal letusan yang terlihat dari ketinggian sekitar 42 km (26 mi) di atas wilayah utara Sumatra | |
| Gunung api | Supervulkan Toba |
| Tanggal | ca 74.000 tahun yang lalu |
| Lokasi | Sumatra, Indonesia 2°41′04″N 98°52′32″E / 2.6845°N 98.8756°E |
| VEI | 8 |
| Dampak | Menutupi anak benua India dengan lapisan abu setebal sekitar 5 cm (2,0 in),[1] dan menyebabkan terjadinya musim dingin vulkanik yang mungkin memicu penyempitan populasi manusia secara drastis |
| Korban jiwa | (Kemungkinan) hampir seluruh umat manusia, menyisakan hanya sekitar 3.000–10.000 individu di seluruh planet |
 Danau Toba merupakan danau kawah vulkanik yang terbentuk akibat letusan tersebut | |
Letusan Toba (juga dikenal sebagai superletusan Toba atau letusan Toba termuda) merupakan suatu peristiwa supervulkanik yang terjadi sekitar 74.000 tahun yang lalu, pada masa Pleistosen Akhir,[2] di lokasi yang kini menjadi Danau Toba di Sumatra, Indonesia. Letusan ini merupakan yang terakhir dari sedikitnya empat letusan pembentuk kaldera di daerah tersebut; kaldera terdahulu diketahui terbentuk sekitar 1,2 juta tahun silam.[3] Letusan terakhir ini diperkirakan memiliki Indeks Daya Ledak Vulkanik sebesar 8, menjadikannya letusan eksplosif terbesar yang diketahui sepanjang Kuarter, sekaligus salah satu dari letusan eksplosif terbesar dalam sejarah Bumi.
Letusan
sunting
Kronologi letusan Toba
suntingTanggal pasti letusan ini tidak diketahui, namun pola endapan abu menunjukkan bahwa peristiwa tersebut kemungkinan terjadi pada musim panas di belahan bumi utara, karena hanya muson musim panas yang dapat membawa abu Toba hingga ke Laut Tiongkok Selatan.[4] Letusan ini mungkin berlangsung antara sembilan hingga empat belas hari.[5] Dua penanggalan presisi tinggi menggunakan metode argon–argon menunjukkan usia letusan masing-masing 73.880 ± 320[6] dan 73.700 ± 300 tahun yang lalu.[7] Lima kantong magma berbeda diketahui aktif dalam beberapa abad sebelum letusan terjadi.[8][9]
Letusan ini diawali oleh semburan udara berskala kecil dan terbatas, yang segera disusul oleh fase utama berupa aliran ignimbrit.[10] Fase ignimbrit ini ditandai oleh kolom letusan yang relatif rendah,[11] tetapi kolom koignimbrit yang terbentuk di atas aliran piroklastik mencapai ketinggian sekitar 32 km (20 mi).[12]
Keterbatasan petrologi terhadap emisi sulfur memperlihatkan kisaran yang sangat luas, antara 1×1013 hingga 1×1015 g, bergantung pada keberadaan gas sulfur terpisah di dalam ruang magma Toba.[13][14] Batas bawah dari perkiraan tersebut mencerminkan rendahnya kelarutan sulfur di dalam magma.[13] Catatan inti es memperkirakan emisi sulfur mencapai sekitar 1×1014 g.[15]
Kutipan dan catatan
sunting- ^ Petraglia, Michael D.; Ditchfield, Peter; Jones, Sacha; Korisettar, Ravi; Pal, J.N. (2012). "The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years". Quaternary International. 258: 119–134. Bibcode:2012QuInt.258..119P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042. ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ "Surprisingly, Humanity Survived the Super-volcano 74,000 Years Ago". Haaretz.
- ^ Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia
- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda
<ref>tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama:11 - ^ Ninkovich, D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Ledbetter, M. T. (1978-09-01). "The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, sumatra: An example of the use of deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool". Bulletin Volcanologique (dalam bahasa Inggris). 41 (3): 286–298. Bibcode:1978BVol...41..286N. doi:10.1007/BF02597228. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128626019.
- ^ Storey, Michael; Roberts, Richard G.; Saidin, Mokhtar (2012-11-13). "Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (dalam bahasa Inggris). 109 (46): 18684–18688. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10918684S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208178109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3503200. PMID 23112159.
- ^ Channell, J.E.T.; Hodell, D.A. (2017). "High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary". Quaternary Geochronology. 42: 56–59. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002. ISSN 1871-1014.
- ^ Pearce, Nicholas J.G.; Westgate, John A.; Gualda, Guilherme A.R.; Gatti, Emma; Muhammad, Ros F. (2019-10-14). "Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra". Journal of Quaternary Science. 35 (1–2): 256–271. doi:10.1002/jqs.3149. hdl:2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3. ISSN 0267-8179.
- ^ Lubbers, Jordan; Kent, Adam J. R.; de Silva, Shanaka (2024-01-18). "Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 179 (2): 12. Bibcode:2024CoMP..179...12L. doi:10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7. ISSN 0010-7999.
- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda
<ref>tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama:10 - ^ CHESNER, C (1998-03-01). "Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia". Journal of Petrology. 39 (3): 397–438. doi:10.1093/petrology/39.3.397. ISSN 1460-2415.
- ^ Woods, Andrew W.; Wohletz, Kenneth (1991). "Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns". Nature (dalam bahasa Inggris). 350 (6315): 225–227. Bibcode:1991Natur.350..225W. doi:10.1038/350225a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
- ^ a b Chesner, Craig A.; Luhr, James F. (2010-11-30). "A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (dalam bahasa Inggris). 197 (1–4): 259–278. Bibcode:2010JVGR..197..259C. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001.
- ^ Scaillet, Bruno; Luhr, James F.; Carroll, Michael R. (2003), "Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere", Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 139, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, hlm. 11–40, doi:10.1029/139gm02, ISBN 0-87590-998-1
- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda
<ref>tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama:15
Referensi
sunting- Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998). "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans". Journal of Human Evolution. 34 (6): 623–651. Bibcode:1998JHumE..34..623A. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219. PMID 9650103.
- Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991). "Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" (PDF). Geology. 19 (3): 200–203. Bibcode:1991Geo....19..200C. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2.
- Gibbons, Ann (1 October 1993). "Pleistocene Population Explosions". Science. 262 (5130): 27–28. Bibcode:1993Sci...262...27G. doi:10.1126/science.262.5130.27. PMID 17742951.
- Gibbons, Ann (19 January 2010). "Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species". ScienceNow.
- Goldberg, T.L. (1996). "Genetics and biogeography of East African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)" (PhD). Harvard University, unpublished.
- Hernandez, R.D.; Hubisz, M.J.; Wheeler, D.A.; Smith, D.G.; Ferguson, B.; et al. (2007). "Demographic histories and patterns of linkage disequilibrium in Chinese and Indian Rhesus macaques". Science. 316 (5822): 240–243. Bibcode:2007Sci...316..240H. doi:10.1126/science.1140462. PMID 17431170.
- Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (19 January 2010). "Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (5): 2147–2152. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.2147H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909000107. PMC 2836654. PMID 20133859.
- Jones, S. C. (2007). "The Toba Supervolcanic Eruption: Tephra-Fall Deposits in India and Paleoanthropological Implications". Dalam Petraglia, M. D.; Allchin, B. (ed.). The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia. Springer. hlm. 173–200. ISBN 978-1-4020-5561-4.
- Luo, S.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Johnson, W.E.; Van der Walt, J.; Martenson, J.; et al. (2004). "Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris)". PLOS Biology. 2 (12): 2275–2293. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442. PMC 534810. PMID 15583716.
- Luo, Shu-Jin; Zhang, Yue; Johnson, Warren E.; Miao, Lin; Martelli, Paolo; et al. (2014). "Sympatric Asian felid phylogeography reveals a major Indochinese–Sundaic divergence". Molecular Ecology. 23 (8): 2072–2092. Bibcode:2014MolEc..23.2072L. doi:10.1111/mec.12716. ISSN 0962-1083. PMID 24629132. S2CID 40030155.
- McGuire, W.J. (2007). "The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events". Dalam Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans (ed.). Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: an Interdisciplinary Approach. Springer. hlm. 123–141. Bibcode:2007caih.book.....B. ISBN 978-3-540-32709-7.
- Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra". Nature. 276 (5688): 574–577. Bibcode:1978Natur.276..574N. doi:10.1038/276574a0. S2CID 4364788.
- Oppenheimer, Clive (August 2002), "Limited global change due to largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?", Quaternary Science Reviews, 21 (14–15): 1593–1609, Bibcode:2002QSRv...21.1593O, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8
- Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; et al. (6 July 2007). "Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-eruption" (PDF). Science. 317 (5834): 114–116. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..114P. doi:10.1126/science.1141564. hdl:10072/412769. PMID 17615356. S2CID 20380351.
- Rampino, M. R.; Ambrose, S. H. (2000). "Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash". Dalam McCoy, F. W.; Heiken, G. (ed.). Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Special Paper 345. doi:10.1130/0-8137-2345-0.71. ISBN 0-8137-2345-0.
- Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (2 September 1992). "Volcanic Winter and Accelerated Glaciation following the Toba Super-eruption" (PDF). Nature. 359 (6390): 50–52. Bibcode:1992Natur.359...50R. doi:10.1038/359050a0. S2CID 4322781. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 20 October 2011.
- Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (1993). "Climate–Volcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of ~74,000 Years ago" (PDF). Quaternary Research. 40 (3): 269–280. Bibcode:1993QuRes..40..269R. doi:10.1006/qres.1993.1081. S2CID 129546088. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 2011-10-21.
- Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (24 December 1993). "Bottleneck in the Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption". Science. 262 (5142): 1955. Bibcode:1993Sci...262.1955R. doi:10.1126/science.8266085. PMID 8266085.
- Robock, A.; Ammann, C.M.; Oman, L.; Shindell, D.; Levis, S.; Stenchikov, G. (2009). "Did the Toba Volcanic Eruption of ~74k BP Produce Widespread Glaciation?". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (D10): D10107. Bibcode:2009JGRD..11410107R. doi:10.1029/2008JD011652.
- Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (October 1987). "Dispersal of Ash in the Great Toba Eruption, 75 ka" (PDF). Geology. 15 (10): 913–917. Bibcode:1987Geo....15..913R. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2.
- Self, Stephen; Blake, Stephen (February 2008). "Consequences of Explosive Supereruptions". Elements. 4 (1): 41–46. Bibcode:2008Eleme...4...41S. doi:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.41.
- Steiper, M.E. (2006). "Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus: Pongo) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci". Journal of Human Evolution. 50 (5): 509–522. Bibcode:2006JHumE..50..509S. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.005. PMID 16472840.
- Thalman, O.; Fisher, A.; Lankester, F.; Pääbo, S.; Vigilant, L. (2007). "The complex history of gorillas: insights from genomic data". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24: 146–158. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl160. PMID 17065595.
- Williams, Martin A.J.; Stanley H. Ambrose; Sander van der Kaars; Carsten Ruehlemann; Umesh Chattopadhyaya; Jagannath Pal; Parth R. Chauhan (30 December 2009). "Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 284 (3–4). Elsevier: 295–314. Bibcode:2009PPP...284..295W. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.009.
- Zielinski, G.A.; Mayewski, P.A.; Meeker, L.D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M.S.; Taylor, K. (1996). "Potential Atmospheric Impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ~71,000 years ago" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 23 (8): 837–840. Bibcode:1996GeoRL..23..837Z. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal July 18, 2011.
Bacaan lanjutan
sunting- Prothero, Donald R. (2018). When Humans Nearly Vanished: The Catastrophic Explosion of the Toba Volcano. Washington: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-1-58834-635-3. OCLC 1020313538.
Pranala luar
sunting
Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Toba eruption.
- Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter
- "Toba Volcano by George Weber". Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal April 22, 2011. Diakses tanggal Juni 1, 2006.
- "The proper study of mankind" – Article in The Economist
- Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory
- Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" [1998] 34, 623–651
- Journey of Mankind by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations
- Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans.
- Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori...; illus. migration map.
- Magma 'Pancakes' May Have Fueled Toba Supervolcano
- Youtube video "Stone Age Apocalypse"
