Standar kecantikan feminin 📖 Wikipedia

Standar kecantikan feminin meliputi sifat-sifat yang terpatri dalam diri perempuan seumur hidup mereka dan dari usia belia demi peningkatan daya tarik fisik. Hal ini dirasakan banyak perempuan di seluruh dunia. Sifat-sifat yang distandarkan berubah sesuai waktu, dan berbeda di setiap negara dan budaya.^[1]

Standar kecantikan yang paling mendominasi bersifat heteronormatif,^[2] namun masih diperdebatkan perihal pengaruhnya terhadap perempuan lesbian dan biseks.^[3][4] Standar kecantikan feminin mencakup, antara lain: bentuk tubuh perempuan, wajah, warna kulit, gaya busana, gaya rambut dan berat tubuh.

Tekanan untuk mengikuti definisi "cantik" tertentu dapat berdapak pada sisi psikologis individu, seperti depresi, gangguan makan, gangguan dismorfik tubuh, rendahnya rasa kepercayaan diri yang dapat dimulai dari usia remaja hingga dewasa.

Kontras warna kulit merupakan standar kecantikan di beberapa kebudayaan.^[5] Perempuan umumnya memiliki warna mata dan bibir yang lebih gelap dari laki-laki, terutama relatif terhadap fitur wajah mereka. Berdasarkan sebuah studi, karakteristik ini diasosiasikan dengan daya tarik perempuan dan feminitas;^[5] pada laki-laki karakteristik ini justru menurunkan daya tarik mereka.^[6] Perempuan dapat menggunakan kosmetik seperti gincu dan perona mata untik meningkatkan kontras warna wajah mereka atau meningkatkan jarak tampilan antara mata dan alis.^[5] Sebuah studi tahun 2009 menemukan bahwa orang Asia Timur memiliki kontras warna kulit wajah daripada orang berkulit putih, karena warna bola mata mereka yang lebih gelap.^[6]

Sebuah riset tahun 2008 berupaya mencari tahu, rambut pirang atau gelap lah yang merupakan standar kecantikan feminin di Barat. Mereka menemukan bahwa rambut gelap lebih ideal. Perempuan dengan rambut gelap sangat direpresentasikan di dunia mode dan budaya populer Barat; oleh karena itu, laki-laki di Inggris cenderung menilai perempuan berambut gelap lebih menarik daripada pirang.^[7][8] Sebuah studi tahun 2018 di Florida juga menghasilkan hasil serupa. Di Asia Timur, perempuan berambut hitam ditampilkan sebagai standar kecantikan, rambut pirang tidak. Perempuan pirang asal Swedia dilaporkan memiliki rasa percaya diri yang lebih rendah ketika tinggal di Singapura, karena standar kecantikannya mengurangi rasa feminitas mereka.^[9][10] Iklan-iklan di Jepang terkadang menunjukkan perempuan pirang iri terhadap perempuan berambut hitam.^[11]

Praktik pemutihan kulit umum di kalangan perempuan di Timur Tengah,^[12][13][14] Asia Selatan, dan Afrika.^[15][16] Di Barat, umum di kalangan perempuan berkulit putih melakukan penggelapan kulit dengan berjemur atau indoor tanning dan self tanning. Di abad ke-21, popularitas tanning telah meningkat di antara perempuan muda di Amerika Serikat, Australia, dan Cina, meskipun terdapat peringatan profesional untuk menghindari proses tanning yang dapat meningkatkan risiko kanker kulit dan penuaan.^[17][18][19] Pada tahun 2020, terdapat peningkatan 175% self tanning di kalangan Gen Z Amerika Serikat berkulit gelap.^[20]

Kolonisasi terhadap negara-negara tidak berkulit putih oleh negara-negara Eropa terkadang memakemkan standar kecantikan interras. Contohnya, di Hindia Belanda, para pria Belanda yang menjajah menilai perempuan Asia Tenggara lebih menarik daripada perempuan berkulit putih, karena kulit dan rambut perempuan Asia Tenggara yang lebih gelap.^[21] Beberapa studi melihat bahwa laki-laki berkulit putih dari negara-negara Barat lebih menyukai perempuan dengan kulit gelap, menandai bahwa tak ada preferensi bawaan untuk kulit terang di Barat.^[22] Oleh karena itu, ada preferensi untuk perempuan dengan kulit sawo matang di kebudayaan Barat.^[23] Beberapa studi di negara-negara barat menemukan bahwa, di kalangan perempuan muda, kulit sawo matang meningkatkan daya tarik diri sendiri.^[24]

Di Hindia Belanda (kini Indonesia), kecantikan ideal perempuan menurut para penjajah berkulit putih adalah perempuan yang berkulit cokelat dengan rambut hitam. Pada tahun 1920-an, seorang konsul Amerika Serikat menulis surat kepada Sekretaris Luar Negeri AS yang mengemukakan bahwa, menurutnya, laki-laki Belanda berkulit putih di Indonesia lebih senang menikahi perempuan lokal yang berkulit berwarna ketimbang perempuan Belanda berkulit putih, karena kulit cokelat dan rambut hitam perempuan Indonesia dianggap lebih indah daripada kulit dan rambut pucat perempuan Belanda.^[25] Masyarakat Belanda yang konservatif memandang pernikahan laki-laki muda Belanda dengan perempuan Indonesia sebagai aib.

1. ^ Spade, Joan Z; Valentine, Catherine (Kay) G (2010). The Kaleidoscope of Gender: Prisms, Patterns and Possibilities (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-7906-1.
2. ^ Everitt, J.G. (2017). Lesson Plans: The Institutional Demands of Becoming a Teacher. Book collections on Project MUSE. Rutgers University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8135-8829-2. Diakses 5 September 2023. p.16: Elements of femininity as an institutional myth include heteronormative beauty standards for women, as well as sexual purity, passiveness, emotional responsiveness and intuition, and intimate capacities for nurturing.
3. ^ Lyons, E.; Coyle, A. (2016). Analysing Qualitative Data in Psychology. SAGE Publications. hlm. 307. ISBN 978-1-4739-3393-4. Diakses tanggal 5 September 2023. p.307: Two authors have speculated on how such ideals affect lesbian and bisexual women. First, lesbians and possibly bisexual may be 'protected' from mainstream emphasis on thinness and subsequent body dissastisfaction because LGB communities reject heteronormative ideals and are more accepting of diverse body sizes (Brown, 1987). An alternative perspective states that because lesbian and bisexual women are raised and live in mainstream society (with its emphasis on thinness and heteronormative femininity), they will internalize these beauty ideals and experience body dissatisfaction in the same way as heterosexual women.
4. ^ Carter, C. (2021). Who's Coming Out to Play: Disruption and Disorientation in Queer Community Sports. McGill-Queen's University Press. hlm. 23. ISBN 978-0-2280-0642-8. Diakses 5 September 2023. hlm.23: Some theorists have proposed that lesbian women have more positive body image due to the seeming protection that queer community provides and strong historical ties with feminist fat activism (Cogan 1999; Ojerholm and Rothblum 1999; Bergeron and Sean 1998; Striegel-Moore, et al. 1990), while others argue that lesbians (trans women and genderqueer individuals are rarely mentioned in body image literature thus far), as women, are socialized concerning the heteronormative feminine bodily ideal similarly to straight cis women (Kelly 2007; Cogan 1999).
5. ^ ^{a b c} Fisher, M. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Women and Competition. Oxford library of psychology. Oxford University Press. hlm. 581. ISBN 978-0-19-937637-7. Diakses 5 September 2023. hlm.581: "Because women tend to have greater facial contrast than men, wearing cosmetics can help women further increase their facial contrast – and therefore increase the perceived femininity of their faces. This increase can be achieved by shaping and darkening facial features so that they stand out. Cosmetics may help women appear more feminine by enlargening perceptions of their eyebrow-eye distance with eye shadow...Thus, women seem to use cosmetics to help themselves appear to adhere to the evolutionarily reinforced mate preferences demonstrated by men across cultures (e.g. good health, facial symmetry, femininity).
6. ^ ^{a b} Russell, Richard (1 Januari 2009). "A Sex Difference in Facial Contrast and its Exaggeration by Cosmetics". Perception. 38 (8). SAGE Publications: 1211–1219. doi:10.1068/p6331. ISSN 0301-0066. PMID 19817153. S2CID 136762. Hlm.1213: "Female faces had greater facial contrast than male faces in both the East Asian and the Caucasian samples, and the East Asian faces (with dark eyes) had greater facial contrast than the Caucasian faces (with lighter eyes). A 2 (sex) 62 (race) analysis of variance (ANOVA) of facial contrast found significant main effects of sex and race.
7. ^ Swami, Viren; Furnham, Adrian; Joshi, Kiran (October 2008). "The influence of skin tone, hair length, and hair colour on ratings of women's physical attractiveness, health and fertility". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 49 (5): 429–437. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00651.x. PMID 18452501.
8. ^ Swami, Furnham & Joshi 2008, hlm. 435
9. ^ Lundström, C. (2014). White Migrations: Gender, Whiteness and Privilege in Transnational Migration. Migration, Diasporas and Citizenship. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-137-28919-3. ... the Singaporean ideal made Swedish women feel 'less feminine' and unable to embody the local Asian ideal. The Swedish women in Singapore were to some extent desexualized and, as a result, experienced a lack of femininity and desirability in the wider society...their blonde hair did not signal attraction, sexuality or sin, but rather Westerner, expatriate or foreigner...In this way, their embodied version of European whiteness weakened their femininity.
10. ^ "Blond, sexy and immigrant". partner.sciencenorway.no. 16 October 2014.
11. ^ Jones, Geoffrey (25 February 2010). Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry. OUP Oxford. p. 314. ISBN 978-0-19-160961-9.
12. ^ "Skin-lightening practice among women living in Jordan: Prevalence, determinants, and user's awareness". ResearchGate. April 2010.
13. ^ "Arab women use 'bottled racism' for whiter skin". Al Arabiya. 20 Agustus 2008.
14. ^ Prusher, Ilene (28 Desember 2009). "Arab women use 'Skin whitening cream finds new popularity among Palestinian women". CS Monitor.
15. ^ Fayemi, Ademola Kazeem (Februari 2020). "Is skin bleaching a moral wrong? An African bioethical perspective". Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics. 41 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1007/s11017-020-09520-1. ISSN 1386-7415. PMID 32304014. S2CID 215810349.
16. ^ Liu, Marian (3 September 2018). "Skin whiteners are still in demand, despite health concerns". CNN.
17. ^ Kelly, Cait (10 Januari 2025). "Burning is risky – so why are tan lines having their time in the sun on social media?". The Guardian.
18. ^ "Gen Z obsessing over dangerous early aughts obsession: tanning". 6 Januari 2025.
19. ^ Lim, Tai Wei (22 Februari 2021). Women Hold Up Half The Sky: The Political-economic And Socioeconomic Narratives Of Women In China. World Scientific. hlm. 47–48. ISBN 978-981-12-2620-5.
20. ^ "Self-tanning usage skyrockets among Black consumers: 175% growth from 2022". www.prnewswire.com (Press release).
21. ^ Gouda 2008, hlm. 167
22. ^ Smith, Rachelle M. (8 June 2018). The Biology of Beauty: The Science behind Human Attractiveness. ABC-CLIO. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-4408-4989-3. "Caucasian males from the University of Vienna rated darker skin as more attractive, demonstrating that a preference for lighter skin is by no means innate."
23. ^ Hurkman, Alexis Van (15 November 2010). The Color Correction Handbook: Professional Techniques for Video and Cinema (dalam bahasa Inggris). Pearson Education. hlm. 30. ISBN 978-0-321-71974-4. "Smith, Cornelissen and Tovee found that, contrary to previous cross-cultural studies on the topic, the observers showed a marked preference for the darker-complexioned, tanned volunteers. Citing other research, the authors propose that a preference for tanning "seems to be largely specific to Caucasians in Western Cultures."
24. ^ Verma, N. M. P.; Srivastava, Alpana (20 August 2020). The Routledge Handbook of Exclusion, Inequality and Stigma in India (dalam bahasa Inggris). Taylor & Francis. hlm. 293. ISBN 978-1-000-09669-9. "A few studies have found that tanned skin is regarded as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin, and there is a direct correlation between the degree of tanning and perceived attractiveness, especially among young women."
25. ^ Gouda, Frances (2008). Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Equinox Publishing. hlm. 167. ISBN 978-979-3780-62-7. "Du Bois seemed unaware of the prurience implicit in his report to the State Department in Washington D.C. Women whose complexion possessed a soft sienna incandescence and whose hair was shiny black comprised a particularly handsome "specimen" of womanhood, he insinuated, which male-defined aesthetic norms ranked higher than pallid, anemic "samples" of European femininity."